Archaeology Can Help Us Plan for Climate Change

 This week we are going to wrap up our climate change series with a discussion on how archaeology can and does contribute to our understanding of climate change. Archaeologists have long studied the effects of natural and man-made disasters and they have already seen evidence of climate change and sea level rise. Climate disasters, ranging from storms to sea level rise, both reveal and threaten archaeological sites. Archaeologists have been studying climate change in one form or another for about 150 years. 

There are numerous examples of archaeologists studying evidence of past climate change events and sustainability practices from long ago. Dr. Kenneth Sassaman has studied how people on the North Florida Gulf Coast have lived and adapted over 5,000 years of climate change and sea level fluctuation. Early people in this region would move at the rate of a football field every five years to adjust to sea level changes. He also noted changes in their diet that reflect possible climatic changes. 

Archaeologists in Iceland have been studying an area that is a known breeding ground for North American and Eurasian waterfowl. It is an area known for its great diversity in waterfowl species. Archaeologists have noted the remains of waterfowl eggs at sites, but not waterfowl bones. They have identified terrestrial bird bones, so they believe the lack of waterfowl bones is indicative of early sustainability practices. Even today, that area has limits on the number of eggs that can be harvested. Historic documents note that these types of sustainability practices have been taking place since at least the 18th century, but archaeological evidence shows that they may have been occurring even earlier.

Native Americans are reintroducing cultural 
burning to California as a means to address
wildfires. (photo courtesy of NPR)

In California, archaeologists, along with ecologists, botanists, and other scientists, are all working to inform policy discussions regarding current and future improvements to fire management practices. In this case, indigenous histories can provide guidance on how to improve current fire management practices and wildfire response. In California Native American groups are starting to institute the practice of cultural burning, something that has not been done for almost a century since Western settlers arrived in the area. 

Both mitigation and adaptation regulate changes in human behavior. Archaeology can provide information on how we can adapt and mitigate issues like climate change based on how we have done so in the past. Archaeology is currently not widely thought of as a contributor to our scientific understanding of climate change and how we can address it. The only time we really see archaeology as a significant contributor is in respect to how climate change will and is impacting indigenous groups. However, it is important to remember that indigenous groups are contemporary communities, and have the same concerns as every other community. They have concerns over health, economic vitality, infrastructure, and all communities have culture and heritage. Therefore, the information that archaeologists garner from studying any community can be used to help us gain a better understanding of how to address climate change. That being said, indigenous and other minority communities are at greater risk, as we have previously mentioned, and thus it is important that they take priority.

In the Wake of the Storm: The Importance of Preparation for Museums and Heritage Sites

Satellite image of Hurricane Michael, 2018 
(courtesy of NOAA)

 In 2018 Hurricane Michael hit the Florida panhandle and continued up into southern Georgia. The damage was unlike anything seen in the area in recent history and many were unprepared for such an intense storm. The wind and storm surge wreaked havoc on both coastal and inland communities, destroying countless homes and businesses. Another victim of the storm were many small community museums, historic landmarks, and historic cemeteries, many of which still remain closed or damaged to this day.

Rapidly intensifying storms are becoming increasingly common, and scientific data suggests that this trend will continue as the global climate continues to warm. The frequency of category 4 and 5 hurricanes (category 4 having wind speeds of 130 mph  to 156 mph, and category 5 having wind speeds of 157 mph or greater) is increasing as a result of climate change. A storm with a wind speed of 150 mph has 256 times the damage potential of a storm with a wind speed of 75mph. The amount of rain is also increasing, as a warmer climate can retain more moisture. This flooding, along with storm surge, has the potential to damage not only coastal sites and structures, but also those located inland. Recall the amount of flooding sustained by the Muscogee Tribe of Florida, located in Bruce, during Hurricane Sally. Scientific data suggests that both wind and storm surge damage will increase faster than the U.S. economy is expected to grow. Additionally, there is an anticipated increase in the number of storms that will impact the Southeastern U.S. 

Tarped roof of historic structure at the 
Panhandle Pioneer Settlement Museum in 
Blountstown, Florida after Hurricane 
Michael. 

We are used to boarding up our home and our businesses, but if we want to ensure that our heritage resources are protected as well, we need to start considering them in our hurricane preparedness plans. As we responded to heritage sites damaged by Hurricane Michael, it became apparent that many of these locations didn’t have a plan in place for hurricanes, or really any disaster event. And we can’t really blame them. Nobody anticipated such a significant storm, and it had been years since a high intensity storm hit the panhandle with such force. 

There is a lot that even a small, financially strapped, museum can do to help ensure their collections and buildings have a chance of surviving a storm with minimal damage. After seeing the damage of Hurricane Michael, we felt it was our responsibility to get that information out and encourage heritage sites to create a disaster preparedness plan. The fact is, with climate change, eventually most sites will have to turn to their preparedness plan eventually. Besides that, something as simple as a busted pipe can be devastating without a plan in place to respond swiftly. Many were hoping that FEMA would provide significant resources, but that was not necessarily the case for many. First, FEMA funds take time and can leave you waiting while your collection sits and rots. Most FEMA programs require that the institution front the cost and then apply for reimbursement, and require that the repaired damage then be insured. Many small museums cannot afford this. Preparing ahead of time is the safest and surest way to protect your resources. For that reason, FPAN has developed the Disasters and Museum Preparedness (DaMP) workshop, which highlights some of the easiest and most useful steps a heritage site can take to help protect their resources in the event of an emergency. If your heritage site is interested in learning more, please contact your local FPAN office. Even during the pandemic, we are able to provide this workshop virtually to those interested. We are currently at the end of hurricane season, but now is the time to start preparing for the 2021 hurricane season. 

Resources:

Natural Disaster Recovery Resources for Museums and Libraries: https://www.imls.gov/blog/2017/09/natural-disaster-recovery-resources-museums-and-libraries

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (Hurricane categories by wind speed):

https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php

How Climate Change is Making Hurricanes More Dangerous (Yale Climate Connections): https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2019/07/how-climate-change-is-making-hurricanes-more-dangerous/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA5bz-BRD-ARIsABjT4nhIafQ2O7YGrYpvtD9kEWy1lI8-3mtu1bA-O9ILw3vfyZ069eXTY74aAhuSEALw_wcB

Heritage Emergency and Response Training:

https://culturalrescue.si.edu/what-we-do/resilience/heritage-emergency-and-response-training-heart/

FPAN Zoom Into Archaeology: Heritage at Risk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-FIHhXweE7k&t=5s

Archaeology and Climate Change: How You Can Help

 Last week we discussed how Native American sites are at risk of being damaged or lost completely due to sea level rise and climate change. Climate change is affecting all of our cultural resources in one way or another, and Florida is especially vulnerable. According to NOAA, the ocean is eight inches higher than it was in 1950, and it could rise up to another eight inches in the next twenty years. That is a significant rate increase in sea level rise! 

Higher sea levels bring with it more intense storm surge that pushes farther inland. It also increases the occurrence of nuisance flooding, such as King Tides (which occur more frequently now in South Florida). We are already seeing the effects of climate change in Florida. One of the complications with sea level rise is that different areas will see different impacts. A great tool for exploring how sea level rise will impact different geographic areas is the NOAA Sea Level Rise Viewer

Today, almost 40% of the U.S. population lives in coastal areas that may be vulnerable to sea level rise. Coastal areas have always provided resources and been good places to live. This is true now and was also true for some of Florida’s earliest inhabitants. These early inhabitants left behind evidence of their culture and life, which now exist as archaeological sites. The Florida Master Site File data shows that over 16,000 cultural resources in Florida will be at risk with a one meter rise in sea level. With a two meter rise this number bumps up to over 34,000 cultural sites at risk. This is not an insignificant number. What can we do? We cannot move archaeological sites and it is impractical for a variety of reasons to excavate the entire site. And we cannot stop sea level rise in order to save these sites (although let’s hope we can perhaps curb the rate at which it is rising). 

Gathering data is a good course of action. We cannot tackle an issue if we do not define the problem.

An HMS Florida Scout monitors a
site along Florida's coastline.

Gathering data on archaeological sites helps us with understanding exactly how these sites are being affected by sea level rise. Baseline data can help us determine the rate at which these sites are being damaged and how. It can also help us in establishing techniques to stabilize and protect these sites. Of course, there are many more sites than there archaeologists and we are racing against the clock. This is where volunteers come in! And yes, you can help! 

The Florida Public Archaeology Network has a statewide public engagement program to help get the public involved in documenting and monitoring archaeological sites that are in danger due to climate change and sea level rise. Heritage Monitoring Scouts (HMS Florida) is designed to have volunteers track changes to archaeological sites that are at risk. Scouts will receive monthly updates on training and resources that are available to them and will gain access to a database where they can document their findings systematically. This is a statewide program and anyone can participate, even children with adult supervision. Signing up as a Scout is a great way to get outdoors to explore and do some good too! If you would like more information or have questions about what sites are available to monitor in your area, contact your regional FPAN office.

And if you would like to learn more about HMS or Climate Change, below are some resources worth checking out: 

NOAA Climate Change: Global Sea Level

NOAA Tidal Gages Explained 

Heritage Monitoring Scouts: How to Monitor a Site

The Rising Tide: Native American Heritage at Risk Due to Climate Change

 Archaeological sites provide us clues to the past. These clues provide us with information we may otherwise never know. For example, evidence at these sites can provide clues to what prehistoric indeginous people were eating, what their houses looked like, population size, how they buried and memorialized their dead, and what tools they used. Often, these sites are the only clues we have of these previous occupants. Many of these sites in Florida exist at or below the current sea level and many of these sites exist along the coastline, where resources would have been abundant. Statewide, more than 16,000 archaeological sites are at risk due to climate change. In the Big Bend Region, this includes over 540 Native American archaeological sites. These sites include occupation and encampment sites, middens (refuse piles), resource extraction sites, mound, and burial sites. 

Many people are under the impression that Florida doesn’t have much archaeology or that its history does not span far back. In fact, Florida’s history spans over 14,000 years from what archaeologists know currently! Indeginous cultures in Florida were constructing mounds before the Egyptians were constructing pyramids! We can learn so much from these sites, including how indeginous people coped with previous sea level events. Archaeologists know that climate change and sea level rise are not new phenomena, but what worries them is the rate at which we are seeing these changes happen now. Archaeologists are already seeing sites with cultural material eroding from them due to sea level rise. We have seen sites, even those inland, destroyed due to stronger and more frequent storm events. We recognize that we cannot save them all, but we can do our best to document them and save those that are significant both from an archaeological standpoint, but also from a Native American cultural standpoint. 

Heritage Monitoring Scout workshop in East Point, FL,
volunteers learning to monitor archaeological
sites.

Archaeologists, including those from tribal governments, are working around the state to document and find solutions to protect our state’s most vulnerable sites. Living shorelines are being installed in some instances, 3D models are being constructed, GIS data is being compiled, and sites are being monitored statewide. These efforts are not just taking place in Florida, but around the country and globally. In some instances, such as with FPAN’s Heritage Monitoring Scouts program, volunteers are being utilized to help with the workload. 50 million indeginous people died from disease, massacres, and slavery as a result of European contact. Many oral histories, traditions, knowledge, and language disappeared along with them, and so it is even more important that we work to learn from and preserve as much as we can from these sites because in many instances they are all that is left of past cultures. Many archaeologists believe strongly that this is the least we can do for the descendants of these ancient indeginous people. Scientific data shows that climate change disproportionately affects minority and indeginous communities, and their cultural heritage is also at risk due to climate change.

Rest in Peace: Protecting Historic Cemeteries from Natural Disasters

In October 2018, Hurricane Michael hit the Gulf Coast of Florida. The impact from this storm was more
devastating and widespread than anyone had anticipated. Not only were coastal communities severely impacted,
but the reach of the storm was felt all the way into Southern Georgia. Countless historical and archaeological
sites were impacted, including many historic cemeteries. Over time patterns of damage have emerged. There is
much that we can learn from these patterns to ensure historic cemeteries are adequately prepared for natural
disasters. Both archaeologists and cemetery managers need to work together to ensure historic cemeteries are
adequately prepared for natural disasters, especially as intensity and frequency of storms continue to increase
due to climate change. 

A tree uprooted during Hurricane Michael and
took with it curbing, headstones, and ledgers.

Hurricane Michael:

•Made landfall near Mexico Beach on October 10, 2018.

•First Category 5 to hit Florida since Andrew in 1992.

•Maximum sustained winds of 160 mph.

•59 deaths in the U.S., 15 deaths in Latin America.

•Caused an estimated $25.1 billion in damages in U.S.

•An estimated $6.23 billion in insurance claims.

•14 ft. storm surge flattened homes in Mexico Beach.

•Caused major structural damage as far inland as Mariana, 54 miles from the coast.

Damage Trends to Cemeteries after Hurricane Michael:

•Large ruts caused by  response vehicles driving on saturated ground.

•Trees uprooted, taking with them ledgers, curbing, headstones, possibly exposing human

remains.

•Large limbs falling and damaging monuments.

•Fallen trees landing on graves and markers.

•Large holes resulting from fallen trees and limbs.

•Fences damaged by powerline poles and trees.

•Wind and water primary concerns

•Storm surge

•Coastal erosion

•Ground saturation

Hurricane Damage to Cemeteries:

EVALUATE YOUR RISK

Response protocol should include pre-established contractors to call upon, volunteers to call on and chain of
command. It is also important to figure out what law enforcement district your cemetery is in and who patrols
your cemetery. Maintain a relationship with them and know how you can expect them to respond to emergency
situations. Make sure any drains you have on property are clear of debris and trash. Prior to a storm event, if
possible, pick up loose debris and ornaments and store in a secure location.

Assess your ability to recover:

•Staff/Volunteers

•Recovery Funds

•Insurance

•Include response protocol in cemetery management plan

Assess your surroundings:

•Trees

•Roads

•Drainage

•Structures

•Markers/Monuments

Historic headstones require the care of a
conservator that specializes in using appropriate
materials for repair. 

Tree Considerations:

One of the most beautiful things about historic cemeteries are the big trees, but they can pose a hazard if not
properly maintained. Pruned trees have a 70% survival rate, while unpruned trees only have a 46% survival rate.
Trees need maintenance, they cannot  simply be left to grow if you want to minimize the chances that they will
cause damage. Use a licensed and insured ISA certified arborist. Live oaks and a few other species will actually
shed their leaves prior to a storm as a way to decrease wind resistance. Planting different aged trees will ensure
you don’t end up with an empty field after a storm or after a long time as they naturally die. Any trees that are
dead or dying, have thick canopies, or have co-dominant trunks should be assessed to determine how to make
them safe.  Winds that are 35 mph or higher can damage any tree.

•Trees together fare better than isolated trees.

•Many arborist companies will evaluate trees for free.

•Remove “widow makers” and dead/diseased trees.

•Plant a variety of types and ages to maintain diversity.

•Loss of leaves doesn’t always mean they are dead.

•Old trees don’t weather storms as well as young trees.

•Properly pruned trees survive better and are less likely to fall.

•Soil compaction increases risk of fall during storm (avoid driving on or near roots).

•Never cut roots shorter than five times the trunk diameter.

•Fast growing trees more likely than slow growing trees to sustain damage.

Falling trees can also damage historic iron works which can
be difficult to repair.

Cemetery Monuments:

Evaluate your monuments before a storm, after a storm and on a regular basis to keep tabs on any

 potential issues. Talk to a conservator about any scaffolding or supports that may be helpful during

 a storm to stabilize leaning or damaged monuments. Documenting before the storm may be useful

 when applying for grants, funds or insurance money after storm. Again, know who you are going to

 call before a storm.  They will be busy after a storm and it may be difficult to find someone to help 

in a timely manner if you are cold calling after a disaster! Have a plan in place for how to deal with 

damaged stones after a storm. 

•Have them assessed by a conservator and repaired as necessary.

•Do a thorough documentation before a storm strikes.

•Setting compound is not adequate, metal or fiberglass pins should be used to prevent monuments

from slipping due to vandals or weather.

•Have a pre-established conservator you can call after a storm or when concerns arise (consider the

same with an arborist).

A few notes regarding FEMA funds:

FEMA funding is very limited and many people have unrealistic expectations due to a lack of 

understanding of what they will cover. Know if your cemetery is eligible before the storm, and know 

that FEMA will deal with basic needs first, so cemeteries may not be addressed immediately. It is not

 recommended that a historic cemetery or any historic resource rely on them as a primary source of

 recovery funding. It is better to create a fundraising campaign to start an escrow account or another

 means of emergency funding that will be readily available after an emergency.

Only public cemeteries are usually eligible for FEMA funds. FEMA limits monument repair to only 

those where it is the legal responsibility of the applicant. So states that have limited liability for

 monument damage have thus precluded obtaining any federal funding from FEMA. The governor of

 the state impacted must request the help and it is county specific. FEMA funds are primarily for 

debris removal, but remember it is reimbursable to qualified cemeteries, so you must have the

 initial funds to pay for the removal.

What archaeologists can do:

•Make contact and develop relationships with cemetery managers.

•Provide education (see FPAN’s Cemetery Resource Protection Training) and educate yourself.

•Encourage cemeteries to have a current management plan that includes disaster planning and

 response.

•Be available for questions and assistance.

•Establish relationships with disaster management agencies and organizations. 

Helpful Resources:

•Chicora Foundation Cemetery Disaster Planning

                  https://www.chicora.org/pdfs/Cemetery%20Disaster%20Planning.pdf

•National Center for Preservation Technology and Training (NCPTT)

                  https://www.ncptt.nps.gov/

•Natural Hazards Center

https://hazards.colorado.edu/article/preserving-the-dead-cemetery-preservation-and-disaster-planning

•“Be Prepared”, Heritage Collections Council (free book for download)
https://aiccm.org.au/disaster/disaster-planning

•CRPT Alliance Facebook Page

•Your local FPAN Regional Center