Archaeology Can Help Us Plan for Climate Change

 This week we are going to wrap up our climate change series with a discussion on how archaeology can and does contribute to our understanding of climate change. Archaeologists have long studied the effects of natural and man-made disasters and they have already seen evidence of climate change and sea level rise. Climate disasters, ranging from storms to sea level rise, both reveal and threaten archaeological sites. Archaeologists have been studying climate change in one form or another for about 150 years. 

There are numerous examples of archaeologists studying evidence of past climate change events and sustainability practices from long ago. Dr. Kenneth Sassaman has studied how people on the North Florida Gulf Coast have lived and adapted over 5,000 years of climate change and sea level fluctuation. Early people in this region would move at the rate of a football field every five years to adjust to sea level changes. He also noted changes in their diet that reflect possible climatic changes. 

Archaeologists in Iceland have been studying an area that is a known breeding ground for North American and Eurasian waterfowl. It is an area known for its great diversity in waterfowl species. Archaeologists have noted the remains of waterfowl eggs at sites, but not waterfowl bones. They have identified terrestrial bird bones, so they believe the lack of waterfowl bones is indicative of early sustainability practices. Even today, that area has limits on the number of eggs that can be harvested. Historic documents note that these types of sustainability practices have been taking place since at least the 18th century, but archaeological evidence shows that they may have been occurring even earlier.

Native Americans are reintroducing cultural 
burning to California as a means to address
wildfires. (photo courtesy of NPR)

In California, archaeologists, along with ecologists, botanists, and other scientists, are all working to inform policy discussions regarding current and future improvements to fire management practices. In this case, indigenous histories can provide guidance on how to improve current fire management practices and wildfire response. In California Native American groups are starting to institute the practice of cultural burning, something that has not been done for almost a century since Western settlers arrived in the area. 

Both mitigation and adaptation regulate changes in human behavior. Archaeology can provide information on how we can adapt and mitigate issues like climate change based on how we have done so in the past. Archaeology is currently not widely thought of as a contributor to our scientific understanding of climate change and how we can address it. The only time we really see archaeology as a significant contributor is in respect to how climate change will and is impacting indigenous groups. However, it is important to remember that indigenous groups are contemporary communities, and have the same concerns as every other community. They have concerns over health, economic vitality, infrastructure, and all communities have culture and heritage. Therefore, the information that archaeologists garner from studying any community can be used to help us gain a better understanding of how to address climate change. That being said, indigenous and other minority communities are at greater risk, as we have previously mentioned, and thus it is important that they take priority.

In the Wake of the Storm: The Importance of Preparation for Museums and Heritage Sites

Satellite image of Hurricane Michael, 2018 
(courtesy of NOAA)

 In 2018 Hurricane Michael hit the Florida panhandle and continued up into southern Georgia. The damage was unlike anything seen in the area in recent history and many were unprepared for such an intense storm. The wind and storm surge wreaked havoc on both coastal and inland communities, destroying countless homes and businesses. Another victim of the storm were many small community museums, historic landmarks, and historic cemeteries, many of which still remain closed or damaged to this day.

Rapidly intensifying storms are becoming increasingly common, and scientific data suggests that this trend will continue as the global climate continues to warm. The frequency of category 4 and 5 hurricanes (category 4 having wind speeds of 130 mph  to 156 mph, and category 5 having wind speeds of 157 mph or greater) is increasing as a result of climate change. A storm with a wind speed of 150 mph has 256 times the damage potential of a storm with a wind speed of 75mph. The amount of rain is also increasing, as a warmer climate can retain more moisture. This flooding, along with storm surge, has the potential to damage not only coastal sites and structures, but also those located inland. Recall the amount of flooding sustained by the Muscogee Tribe of Florida, located in Bruce, during Hurricane Sally. Scientific data suggests that both wind and storm surge damage will increase faster than the U.S. economy is expected to grow. Additionally, there is an anticipated increase in the number of storms that will impact the Southeastern U.S. 

Tarped roof of historic structure at the 
Panhandle Pioneer Settlement Museum in 
Blountstown, Florida after Hurricane 
Michael. 

We are used to boarding up our home and our businesses, but if we want to ensure that our heritage resources are protected as well, we need to start considering them in our hurricane preparedness plans. As we responded to heritage sites damaged by Hurricane Michael, it became apparent that many of these locations didn’t have a plan in place for hurricanes, or really any disaster event. And we can’t really blame them. Nobody anticipated such a significant storm, and it had been years since a high intensity storm hit the panhandle with such force. 

There is a lot that even a small, financially strapped, museum can do to help ensure their collections and buildings have a chance of surviving a storm with minimal damage. After seeing the damage of Hurricane Michael, we felt it was our responsibility to get that information out and encourage heritage sites to create a disaster preparedness plan. The fact is, with climate change, eventually most sites will have to turn to their preparedness plan eventually. Besides that, something as simple as a busted pipe can be devastating without a plan in place to respond swiftly. Many were hoping that FEMA would provide significant resources, but that was not necessarily the case for many. First, FEMA funds take time and can leave you waiting while your collection sits and rots. Most FEMA programs require that the institution front the cost and then apply for reimbursement, and require that the repaired damage then be insured. Many small museums cannot afford this. Preparing ahead of time is the safest and surest way to protect your resources. For that reason, FPAN has developed the Disasters and Museum Preparedness (DaMP) workshop, which highlights some of the easiest and most useful steps a heritage site can take to help protect their resources in the event of an emergency. If your heritage site is interested in learning more, please contact your local FPAN office. Even during the pandemic, we are able to provide this workshop virtually to those interested. We are currently at the end of hurricane season, but now is the time to start preparing for the 2021 hurricane season. 

Resources:

Natural Disaster Recovery Resources for Museums and Libraries: https://www.imls.gov/blog/2017/09/natural-disaster-recovery-resources-museums-and-libraries

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (Hurricane categories by wind speed):

https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php

How Climate Change is Making Hurricanes More Dangerous (Yale Climate Connections): https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2019/07/how-climate-change-is-making-hurricanes-more-dangerous/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA5bz-BRD-ARIsABjT4nhIafQ2O7YGrYpvtD9kEWy1lI8-3mtu1bA-O9ILw3vfyZ069eXTY74aAhuSEALw_wcB

Heritage Emergency and Response Training:

https://culturalrescue.si.edu/what-we-do/resilience/heritage-emergency-and-response-training-heart/

FPAN Zoom Into Archaeology: Heritage at Risk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-FIHhXweE7k&t=5s

Archaeology and Climate Change: How You Can Help

 Last week we discussed how Native American sites are at risk of being damaged or lost completely due to sea level rise and climate change. Climate change is affecting all of our cultural resources in one way or another, and Florida is especially vulnerable. According to NOAA, the ocean is eight inches higher than it was in 1950, and it could rise up to another eight inches in the next twenty years. That is a significant rate increase in sea level rise! 

Higher sea levels bring with it more intense storm surge that pushes farther inland. It also increases the occurrence of nuisance flooding, such as King Tides (which occur more frequently now in South Florida). We are already seeing the effects of climate change in Florida. One of the complications with sea level rise is that different areas will see different impacts. A great tool for exploring how sea level rise will impact different geographic areas is the NOAA Sea Level Rise Viewer

Today, almost 40% of the U.S. population lives in coastal areas that may be vulnerable to sea level rise. Coastal areas have always provided resources and been good places to live. This is true now and was also true for some of Florida’s earliest inhabitants. These early inhabitants left behind evidence of their culture and life, which now exist as archaeological sites. The Florida Master Site File data shows that over 16,000 cultural resources in Florida will be at risk with a one meter rise in sea level. With a two meter rise this number bumps up to over 34,000 cultural sites at risk. This is not an insignificant number. What can we do? We cannot move archaeological sites and it is impractical for a variety of reasons to excavate the entire site. And we cannot stop sea level rise in order to save these sites (although let’s hope we can perhaps curb the rate at which it is rising). 

Gathering data is a good course of action. We cannot tackle an issue if we do not define the problem.

An HMS Florida Scout monitors a
site along Florida's coastline.

Gathering data on archaeological sites helps us with understanding exactly how these sites are being affected by sea level rise. Baseline data can help us determine the rate at which these sites are being damaged and how. It can also help us in establishing techniques to stabilize and protect these sites. Of course, there are many more sites than there archaeologists and we are racing against the clock. This is where volunteers come in! And yes, you can help! 

The Florida Public Archaeology Network has a statewide public engagement program to help get the public involved in documenting and monitoring archaeological sites that are in danger due to climate change and sea level rise. Heritage Monitoring Scouts (HMS Florida) is designed to have volunteers track changes to archaeological sites that are at risk. Scouts will receive monthly updates on training and resources that are available to them and will gain access to a database where they can document their findings systematically. This is a statewide program and anyone can participate, even children with adult supervision. Signing up as a Scout is a great way to get outdoors to explore and do some good too! If you would like more information or have questions about what sites are available to monitor in your area, contact your regional FPAN office.

And if you would like to learn more about HMS or Climate Change, below are some resources worth checking out: 

NOAA Climate Change: Global Sea Level

NOAA Tidal Gages Explained 

Heritage Monitoring Scouts: How to Monitor a Site

The Rising Tide: Native American Heritage at Risk Due to Climate Change

 Archaeological sites provide us clues to the past. These clues provide us with information we may otherwise never know. For example, evidence at these sites can provide clues to what prehistoric indeginous people were eating, what their houses looked like, population size, how they buried and memorialized their dead, and what tools they used. Often, these sites are the only clues we have of these previous occupants. Many of these sites in Florida exist at or below the current sea level and many of these sites exist along the coastline, where resources would have been abundant. Statewide, more than 16,000 archaeological sites are at risk due to climate change. In the Big Bend Region, this includes over 540 Native American archaeological sites. These sites include occupation and encampment sites, middens (refuse piles), resource extraction sites, mound, and burial sites. 

Many people are under the impression that Florida doesn’t have much archaeology or that its history does not span far back. In fact, Florida’s history spans over 14,000 years from what archaeologists know currently! Indeginous cultures in Florida were constructing mounds before the Egyptians were constructing pyramids! We can learn so much from these sites, including how indeginous people coped with previous sea level events. Archaeologists know that climate change and sea level rise are not new phenomena, but what worries them is the rate at which we are seeing these changes happen now. Archaeologists are already seeing sites with cultural material eroding from them due to sea level rise. We have seen sites, even those inland, destroyed due to stronger and more frequent storm events. We recognize that we cannot save them all, but we can do our best to document them and save those that are significant both from an archaeological standpoint, but also from a Native American cultural standpoint. 

Heritage Monitoring Scout workshop in East Point, FL,
volunteers learning to monitor archaeological
sites.

Archaeologists, including those from tribal governments, are working around the state to document and find solutions to protect our state’s most vulnerable sites. Living shorelines are being installed in some instances, 3D models are being constructed, GIS data is being compiled, and sites are being monitored statewide. These efforts are not just taking place in Florida, but around the country and globally. In some instances, such as with FPAN’s Heritage Monitoring Scouts program, volunteers are being utilized to help with the workload. 50 million indeginous people died from disease, massacres, and slavery as a result of European contact. Many oral histories, traditions, knowledge, and language disappeared along with them, and so it is even more important that we work to learn from and preserve as much as we can from these sites because in many instances they are all that is left of past cultures. Many archaeologists believe strongly that this is the least we can do for the descendants of these ancient indeginous people. Scientific data shows that climate change disproportionately affects minority and indeginous communities, and their cultural heritage is also at risk due to climate change.

The Apalachee and European Contact in Florida

Map depicting the Apalachee Province
and other Native American Tribes
in the Southeast (courtesy of the 
Florida Division of Historical Resources)

The Apalachee lived in the Tallahassee area prior to Spanish arrival. Specifically, the Apalachee Province (as it was referred to by the Spanish) existed between the Aucilla and Ochlockonee Rivers, at the head of the Apalachee Bay. Like the Muscogee (Creek) that we learned about last week, the Apalachee also spoke a Muscogean language which was also called Apalachee. While the Apalachee language is now considered extinct, the descendants of those who spoke it still exist, although in much smaller numbers than prior to European contact. 

The Apalachee were agriculturalists, growing crops such as various types of corn, pumpkin, and sunflowers. They also hunted and gathered throughout the region. Agriculture allowed them to remain in one place for long periods, settling in large groups. It also allowed for them to have more specialization and stratification within their community. They were also part of a very expansive trade network. This trade network extended from the Gulf Coast, to the Great Lakes, all the way into Oklahoma. They would trade shells and  other locally available materials for things like copper and sheets of mica. In fact, the reputation they garnered as a result of this trade network reportedly caused the Native Americans in Southern Florida to implore the Spanish to move north to the Apalachee Province if they wanted to find real riches, such as gold. There is no evidence that the Apalachee actually had gold, but perhaps the copper was mistakenly thought to be gold. 

The Narvaez Expedition encountered the Apalachee in 1528, and eleven years later the de Soto Expedition wintered at Anhaica (present-day Tallahassee), which was the Apalachee capitol.  You can visit the site of de Soto’s winter encampment, which currently is home to the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research. This was not a peaceful mixing of two cultures, and resulted in numerous violent instances. The Apalachee’s arrows were said to be able to pierce two layers of chainmail but no amount of weaponry could protect them against the invisible killer the Spanish brought with them. In addition to violence, the Apalachee suffered from diseases brought over by the Europeans. Throughout  early history, there were also multiple instances of violence between the Apalachee and other Indigenous tribes considered to be their enemy. As you can imagine, in some instances these rivalries were used by the Spanish and other Europeans.

An artistic rendering of what Mission San Luis 
de Talimali looked like (courtesy of the Trail of 
Florida's Indian Heritage)

Around 1600 Spanish Franciscans found successful Catholic missions among the Apalachee. There is much conjecture as to why they were more willing than some other Florida tribes to convert to Catholicism. Many speculate that it could have been due to desperation from their dwindling numbers and the fear of an unknown and invisible killer- diseases brought by the Spanish. However, it is important to note that there were instances of revolt against the Spanish missions. So we cannot assume that it was an easy transition or completely voluntary. From 1654 to 1704 Mission San Luis de Talimali was the western capitol of Spanish Florida. Today it is a living history museum and listed as a National Historic Landmark. 

The pre-contact population of the Apalachee is estimated to have been approximately 50,000. By 1608, a Spanish Fransiscan Friar estimated it at about 36,000. The population steadily declined, and by 1675 only about 10,000 Apalachee remained. Survivors were forced to relocate, and oftentimes had to hide their identity as Apalachee. They adapted to survive and the relocation allowed them to escape complete genocide. Today there are an estimated 300 people that identify as  descendants of the Apalachee who once dominated this region. These are members of the Talimali Band of Apalachee. Today they reside mostly in Louisiana and continue to uphold their Apalachee traditions and are working towards federal recognition. These descendants have worked with archaeologists and historians at Mission San Luis de Talimali ,located in their ancestral homeland, to ensure a culturally appropriate and accurate representation of their culture and ancestors. 

There are quite a number of books available that discuss the Apalachee and the Spanish Mission Period in Florida. A few we recommend, in addition to the numerous links above, are listed below. 

The Apalachee Indians and Mission San Luis, written by John H. Hann and Bonnie G. McEwan

Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe, written by Jerald T. Milanich

Hernando de Soto Among the Apalachee: The Archaeology of the First Winter Encampment (Florida Museum of Natural History: Ripley P. Bullen Series), written by Charles R. Ewen and John H. Hann

Here They Once Stood: The Tragic End of the Apalachee Missions, written by Mark F. Boyd

The Muscogee Nation of Florida: A People of One Fire

 

The Muscogee Nation of Florida's Tribal 
Headquarters in Bruce, FL (photo courtesy
of Walton Outdoors)

The Muscogee ancestral homeland consists of what is now south Tennessee, Alabama, western Georgia, and parts of north Florida. A large majority of the Muscogee (often referred to as Creek) people were forcibly removed from these ancestral homelands by the federal government in the 1830s during the Trail of Tears. Today, descendants of those removed reside in Oklahoma, where native populations were relocated during this time. That being said, there is a vibrant and active traditional Muscogee community that exists in Florida today, which includes several different tribal communities. Today we are focusing on the Muscogee Nation of Florida and one of the projects that they are developing in a rural community in the Florida panhandle. Our goal here is not to tell you the story or history of the Muscogee, as they can most definitely tell that better than we can. Our goal is to introduce people to the Muscogee and discuss a valuable contribution they are making to a rural community that is often overlooked. 

The Muscogee people have become a staple part of their communities in North Florida. One project that has caught our attention is the Muscogee Farm project of the Muscogee Nation of Florida. The Muscogee Nation of Florida is headquartered in Bruce, Florida. They have endeavored to establish an agro-tourism business that will increase the self-sufficiency of the tribe and create additional employment opportunities for tribal members. It will provide a new source of locally sourced food for the community and create an income stream for the tribe. The farm’s plans include over seven acres of land surrounding their tribal headquarters, and encompass everything from hydroponics to aquaponics. There are also plans for  a U-pick blueberry orchard! The farm plans include an educational aspect as well, with a learning center, nature trails with interpretive signage about native plants, and other educational components. The tribe also envisions this farm becoming part of the

Trail of Florida’s Indian Heritage.

Flooding of the Muscogee Farm from Hurricane 
Sally. (photo courtesy of Muscogee Nation of 
Florida)

 Projects like this empower the Muscogee tribal members, but they also provide for their surrounding community as well and create educational opportunities for all. We often think of Native American communities as living in isolation, but this is a great example of a tribal community creating opportunity for their members, while providing a resource for their surrounding community as well. Unfortunately, this area has been battered by hurricanes for several years now. Most recently, Hurricane Sally hit the Bruce area and Muscogee Farms experienced extreme flooding and damage. This flooding killed numerous fruit trees and indeginous plants and wreaked havoc on their structures. We encourage you to please learn more about how you can help the Muscogee Nation of Florida recover from Hurricane Sally  and reach their goals. We hope that if you find yourself in or near Bruce that you will visit their farm and educational center as well, as the best way to learn about our Native American culture here in Florida is from the source itself! 

Let's Celebrate! November is Native American Heritage Month

 Florida is rich in Native American history, culture, and heritage. Many people have heard of the Seminole Tribe of Florida, but there are also some people that are not aware of Florida’s indigenous people. The Seminole may be one of the more well known indigenous groups in Florida, but there are others as well. November is Native American Heritage Month, and so we thought it would be a great opportunity to share some information about Florida’s Native Americans. One thing we want to make absolutely clear is that there are still Native Americans in Florida and across North America that practice their traditions while living in a modern world. In fact, there are over 5 million people in the United States that identify as American Indian. While they have a rich history in our state, they do indeed play a huge role in Florida’s present and future as well. But before we get too far ahead of ourselves, let’s learn about the history and evolution of Native American Heritage Month and then go from there. 

Dr. Arthur C. Parker (photo 
courtesy of wikipedia.com)

We have celebrated Native American Heritage Month since President George H. W. Bush approved a joint resolution designating November 1990 as such. Similar proclamations have been made every year since then. However, the celebration of Native American heritage goes back earlier than that. In 1911, Dr. Arthur Parker, a Seneca tribal member, archaeologist and historian, and Director of the Museum of Arts and Science in Rochester, New York, successfully persuaded the Boy Scouts of America to set aside a day for “First Americans”. It is also worth noting that in 1935 Dr. Parker, a Native American, was elected the first president of the Society for American Archaeology! Then, in 1915, at the Annual Congress of the American Indian Association, a plan for “American Indian Day” was approved. President Coolidge issued a proclamation on September 28th, 1915 declaring the second Saturday of May as American Indian Day. This proclamation is significant because it also contained the first formal appeal for recognition of Native Americans as citizens of the United States. 

After the 1915 proclamation by President Coolidge, several states subsequently started to celebrate Native American heritage on the fourth Saturday of September. More recently, several states have designated Columbus Day as  Indigenous Peoples Day, but it is also observed without being recognized as a national legal holiday. Columbus Day has long been seen by many Indigenous people and others as a day that glorifies a time in our nation’s history that was violent and oppressive towards indigenous cultures. This shift has not been without controversy, but there is a growing movement towards celebrating Indigenous Peoples Day, with more states, college campuses, and municipalities choosing to celebrate it every year rather than Columbus Day.

Native American Heritage Month is a month for everyone to celebrate and learn about the achievements and contributions of Native Americans to our country's past, present and future. We invite you to take time this month to educate yourself and explore Florida’s rich Native American heritage. Each of our weekly blog posts this month will be dedicated to this subject and we will also provide additional resources if you would like to explore further. To get started, we urge you to check out the Trail of Florida’s Indian Heritage.

A Tangible Record to the Past: African American Cemeteries

 If you have ever walked around an historic cemetery before, you’ve probably noticed how much you can learn about a person or a group of people by looking at their headstones and graves. The social history of a culture or community is often reflected within a cemetery. You can find clues to their religion or spiritual beliefs, their socioeconomic status, familial ties, demographics, and even settlement patterns. Burial practices are usually so important and central to a culture that they are one of the slowest traditions to change over time. Therefore, burial practices can be seen as a window into the core values of a group of people. This is true for all cultures, but is of great value in studying groups of people and cultures that have been disenfranchised, including African Americans. Unfortunately, just like so many other parts of their culture, cemeteries of these disenfranchised groups have all too often been forgotten or neglected, and in many cases, destroyed. These sites have not always been viewed as being worthy of preservation. However, that is starting to change. 

This past 2020 Florida legislative session saw the introduction of the 2020 Abandoned African American Cemeteries bill. This bill was spurred by the destruction of Zion Cemetery in Tampa, Florida. Zion Cemetery is thought to be the first African American cemetery in Tampa. This bill would have created a task force and would have required the memorialization of specific African American cemeteries in Florida. This bill did not make it all the way through the legislative process, but is a great first step in the acknowledgment of the harm done to these cemeteries and those they represent. There has also been action taken at the federal level, with the introduction of the African American Burial Grounds Network Act in Congress. This act would create a voluntary network of African American cemeteries and provide federal assistance to ensure that these sites are preserved and maintained.

A portion of what once was Zion Cemetery in Tampa (photo
courtesy of Tampa Bay Times)

These types of legislation are important because they acknowledge that there have been injustices and that these sites do indeed have value to our shared understanding of history. This is especially important because so often these cemeteries are the only surviving evidence of historic African American communities. For many of these cemeteries there is no official documentation of where they are located or who is interred in the cemetery. Oftentimes the grave markers are gone or degraded. Rarely were these cemeteries noted on maps or historic plats, but they are often well known to the local African American communities. Therefore, they require extra work and extra care to protect them. Oral histories can sometimes fill in gaps that are left by the lack of written documentation, but these sources are all too often overlooked or not sought after. 

These cemeteries serve as a tangible record of a disenfranchised group and many times reflect ancient funerary practices based in Africa. These traditions came over with the enslaved, and in some places these customs are still practiced today. Historic cemeteries create a sense of place, a sense of shared heritage and community, a sense of self and belonging. Losing these sites would mean losing important and unique historical, cultural, and genealogical information. Ignoring the contribution of these historic cemeteries to our shared historical knowledge also further neglects a group that has already endured far too much and does nothing to create a holistic and accurate view of our state and national histories. 

To learn more about historic African American and African Caribbean cemeteries, you can check out Sharyn Thompson’s select bibliography for reading suggestions.

Cemetery Fencing: Artwork in its Own Right

 In this installment of our October Cemetery Series, we will be discussing fencing. Yes, that’s right! Fences are something we don’t see much of in modern cemeteries, mainly because they make maintenance more complicated, but they were commonplace in historic cemeteries. Here in Tallahassee, both St. John’s Episcopal Cemetery and Old City Cemetery have wonderful examples of Victorian Era ironwork fencing. There are three general types of fencing that you will find in most cemeteries: wrought iron, cast iron, and woven wire. When doing repair work it is very important to understand what type of fencing you are working with. 

Just one example of the ornate fences you 
can find at Old City Cemetery (courtesy of 
Florida Center for Instructional Techonology)

Wrought iron (also called puddled or charcoal iron) is the material commonly used by blacksmiths. It is almost pure iron, but also contains a small amount of glassy slag, which is what causes it to form malleable  linear fibers. Wrought iron is easy to work with and great for delicate artwork. This material does not corrode very easily and is not brittle or very breakable. These characteristics make it great for intricate fence work. Cast iron has a higher carbon content than wrought iron, and can be easily poured into molds. This characteristic makes it good for manufacturing replicated fencing details. However, it is hard and brittle, thus it cannot be shaped by hammering, rolling, or pressing like wrought iron. Woven wire fencing was less expensive than other fencing materials, and oftentimes were much more intricate than our typical chain link type fencing we see today. Unfortunately, their delicate nature means that they are usually not well preserved, and often seen damaged by mowing, vegetation overgrowth, or corrosion. 

Often when we visit cemeteries we will see the fencing painted black. While some fences were most definitely painted black, it wasn’t necessarily the default for all of the fencing. In fact, many fences were elaborately painted with a multitude of colors. When doing fence repair work, it is worthwhile to take the time to try to find the original colors by looking around fasteners and nooks and crannies. Sometimes you may be surprised at what you find. If you have ever taken a stroll through New Orleans, you may have noticed numerous examples of painted cast iron fences adorning the gardens of many of the historic homes. While many think this is a modern occurrence having to do with the colorful culture of the city, this actually depicts quite accurately what many iron fences actually looked like historically.

Fencing was often used to delineate family plots or individual burials. They are one of the unique characteristics of historic cemeteries, rarely seen in more modern cemeteries. Unfortunately, there is a growing elicit market for cemetery gates, fencing, benches and other ironwork. It is important to understand that removing such materials is against the law, as well as extremely disrespectful. Owners and caretakers should take steps to secure all materials. The National Park Service and the Chicora Foundation both have resources available to help preserve and protect these unique historic cemetery features. The first step should include an inventory and photographic documentation of all the fencing within the cemetery. This helps with proper repair should it become damaged and can assist you in identifying items belonging to the cemetery should something be removed. 

Historic fencing is something, along with  historic grave markers, that should be documented and assessed regularly and repaired when necessary. Some of the preservation does require specialized skill, but some can also be done by trained volunteers. The Wisconsin Historical Society hosted a wonderful webinar on the repair and care of ornamental fences. These fences are characteristic of Victorian Era cemeteries, and while many folks tend to pass over them with just a glance, it is definitely worthwhile to stop and admire their beauty and intricate designs. They are truly pieces of art worthy of admiration!

An Imposter Among Stone: White Bronze Monuments

 If you have ever noticed a monument in a cemetery that looked a lot like stone, but actually

Samuel Sheppards white
bronze monument at 
Old City Cemetery.
(courtesy of findagrave.com)

appears to be made of some type of metal, you probably have stumbled upon what is commonly referred to as a “white bronze” marker. These markers are actually not bronze at all, but an alloy of varying amounts of copper, tin, and zinc. Oftentimes, these markers tend to stand out in the cemetery because they appear in better shape, or cleaner than their stone neighbors. White bronze monuments are non-porous and resistant to corrosion and degradation over time. They don’t tarnish and many appear deceptively brand new, often with a bluish-grey color, which was a result of the finishing process. The monuments were sandblasted and finished using a process called “steam bluing” to give them their stone-like appearance. Steam bluing involves coating the monument in linseed oil and then steaming it at high pressure. 

Monumental Bronze Company 
catalog page illustrating some
common motifs that were available.
(Courtesy of The Smithsonian)

These monuments were marketed as an affordable option that would stand up to wear and tear. They were one third the price of stone or granite markers at the time. The term “White Bronze” was a marketing strategy to make the monuments more appealing to the masses. Some cemeteries banned them, possibly at the request of local granite and marble monument manufacturers. Some saw white bronze to be a cheap imitation of solid granite. Nevertheless, these monuments appear in cemeteries all over North America, from the west to the east coast, and into Canada. Each one is unique, as they were made to order. Over 500 designs were available and the purchaser chose their base, monument and attached panels from a catalog. These monuments were not sold in local stores, but were marketed and sold by sales agents. The price ranged from $10 to $5000, depending on the desired specifications. Often they will have removable panels that were bolted on using a specialized tool. This was so that new names could be added in cases where one monument represented multiple individuals. These panels continued to be manufactured until 1939, several decades after manufacturing of the monuments had come to an end.

The Monumental Bronze Company plant in 
Bridgeport, Connecticut (courtesy of A Grave 
Interest)

The technique was developed by Milo Amos Richardson in Chautauqua, New York in 1873. He attempted to establish his own manufacturing company, but in the end sold the rights to the Monumental Bronze Company. The Monumental Bronze Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut was the sole manufacturer of these monuments from 1874 to 1914. Although the original casting was done in Bridgeport, Monumental Bronze had foundries and assembly plants in Chicago, Des Moines, Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and St. Thomas, Canada.

As previously mentioned, these monuments were made of a metal alloy. They were manufactured as vertical panels that were then assembled using screws. The inside of the monument is hollow, which has lent itself to stories of bootleggers hiding contraband and alcohol in them during Prohibition. However, we couldn’t find any concrete proof to back that up. What we do know is that while these monuments are extremely sturdy, some of the heavier ones will start to sag, requiring internal supports. Quite often we also see the seams that were fused start to come apart as the monument ages or sags.

The manufacturing of white bronze monuments came to an end during World War I. The Monumental Bronze Company was taken over by the U.S. government to manufacture gun mounts and munitions for the war effort. After the war, demand for metal monuments had declined, but they continued to make the metal panels until 1939. Most of their manufacturing shifted to things such as fabricating castings for automobile parts, radio parts, and kitchen equipment. The company did not survive the Great Depression and ended up closing after filing bankruptcy in 1939.

Marie Murat Hickey's white bronze marker at 
Chestnut Street Cemetery in Apalachicola
(Courtesy of findagrave.com)

If you have never noticed any white bronze monuments in a cemetery, there are a few in the local Big Bend and Tallahassee area you can check out. In Old City Cemetery in downtown Tallahassee (where Bessie’s monument is also located) there is the white bronze monument for the grave of Samuel Allen Sheppard (d. 1897). In Chestnut Street Cemetery in Apalachicola there is the grave of Marie Murat Hickey (d. 1907). Her husband,Patrick Hickey (d. 1907) has an identical white bronze marker in nearby  Magnolia Cemetery. According to local lore, Marie cut her husband’s throat  at their home above a local store, and then cut her own throat! However, we could not find a single piece of documentary evidence to prove this story to be true. Talk about a history mystery though! If you know of any such documentation or of any other local white bronze monuments, we would love to hear from you! You can read further about these monuments by checking out the links below as well. 

Resources and more information:

Connecticuthistory.org https://connecticuthistory.org/monumental-bronze-company/

Mount Olive Cemetery, Inc. http://www.mountolivetcemeteryinc.com/stories-in-stone-blog/white-bronze-markers

Stephen F. Austin State University http://www.sfasu.edu/heritagecenter/4687.asp

The Smithsonian (great images of Monumental Bronze Company Catalogs!) https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/whitebronzemonu00monu

A Grave Interest Blog http://agraveinterest.blogspot.com/2012/06/white-bronze-monument-of-quality.html