A Tangible Record to the Past: African American Cemeteries

 If you have ever walked around an historic cemetery before, you’ve probably noticed how much you can learn about a person or a group of people by looking at their headstones and graves. The social history of a culture or community is often reflected within a cemetery. You can find clues to their religion or spiritual beliefs, their socioeconomic status, familial ties, demographics, and even settlement patterns. Burial practices are usually so important and central to a culture that they are one of the slowest traditions to change over time. Therefore, burial practices can be seen as a window into the core values of a group of people. This is true for all cultures, but is of great value in studying groups of people and cultures that have been disenfranchised, including African Americans. Unfortunately, just like so many other parts of their culture, cemeteries of these disenfranchised groups have all too often been forgotten or neglected, and in many cases, destroyed. These sites have not always been viewed as being worthy of preservation. However, that is starting to change. 

This past 2020 Florida legislative session saw the introduction of the 2020 Abandoned African American Cemeteries bill. This bill was spurred by the destruction of Zion Cemetery in Tampa, Florida. Zion Cemetery is thought to be the first African American cemetery in Tampa. This bill would have created a task force and would have required the memorialization of specific African American cemeteries in Florida. This bill did not make it all the way through the legislative process, but is a great first step in the acknowledgment of the harm done to these cemeteries and those they represent. There has also been action taken at the federal level, with the introduction of the African American Burial Grounds Network Act in Congress. This act would create a voluntary network of African American cemeteries and provide federal assistance to ensure that these sites are preserved and maintained.

A portion of what once was Zion Cemetery in Tampa (photo
courtesy of Tampa Bay Times)

These types of legislation are important because they acknowledge that there have been injustices and that these sites do indeed have value to our shared understanding of history. This is especially important because so often these cemeteries are the only surviving evidence of historic African American communities. For many of these cemeteries there is no official documentation of where they are located or who is interred in the cemetery. Oftentimes the grave markers are gone or degraded. Rarely were these cemeteries noted on maps or historic plats, but they are often well known to the local African American communities. Therefore, they require extra work and extra care to protect them. Oral histories can sometimes fill in gaps that are left by the lack of written documentation, but these sources are all too often overlooked or not sought after. 

These cemeteries serve as a tangible record of a disenfranchised group and many times reflect ancient funerary practices based in Africa. These traditions came over with the enslaved, and in some places these customs are still practiced today. Historic cemeteries create a sense of place, a sense of shared heritage and community, a sense of self and belonging. Losing these sites would mean losing important and unique historical, cultural, and genealogical information. Ignoring the contribution of these historic cemeteries to our shared historical knowledge also further neglects a group that has already endured far too much and does nothing to create a holistic and accurate view of our state and national histories. 

To learn more about historic African American and African Caribbean cemeteries, you can check out Sharyn Thompson’s select bibliography for reading suggestions.

Cemetery Fencing: Artwork in its Own Right

 In this installment of our October Cemetery Series, we will be discussing fencing. Yes, that’s right! Fences are something we don’t see much of in modern cemeteries, mainly because they make maintenance more complicated, but they were commonplace in historic cemeteries. Here in Tallahassee, both St. John’s Episcopal Cemetery and Old City Cemetery have wonderful examples of Victorian Era ironwork fencing. There are three general types of fencing that you will find in most cemeteries: wrought iron, cast iron, and woven wire. When doing repair work it is very important to understand what type of fencing you are working with. 

Just one example of the ornate fences you 
can find at Old City Cemetery (courtesy of 
Florida Center for Instructional Techonology)

Wrought iron (also called puddled or charcoal iron) is the material commonly used by blacksmiths. It is almost pure iron, but also contains a small amount of glassy slag, which is what causes it to form malleable  linear fibers. Wrought iron is easy to work with and great for delicate artwork. This material does not corrode very easily and is not brittle or very breakable. These characteristics make it great for intricate fence work. Cast iron has a higher carbon content than wrought iron, and can be easily poured into molds. This characteristic makes it good for manufacturing replicated fencing details. However, it is hard and brittle, thus it cannot be shaped by hammering, rolling, or pressing like wrought iron. Woven wire fencing was less expensive than other fencing materials, and oftentimes were much more intricate than our typical chain link type fencing we see today. Unfortunately, their delicate nature means that they are usually not well preserved, and often seen damaged by mowing, vegetation overgrowth, or corrosion. 

Often when we visit cemeteries we will see the fencing painted black. While some fences were most definitely painted black, it wasn’t necessarily the default for all of the fencing. In fact, many fences were elaborately painted with a multitude of colors. When doing fence repair work, it is worthwhile to take the time to try to find the original colors by looking around fasteners and nooks and crannies. Sometimes you may be surprised at what you find. If you have ever taken a stroll through New Orleans, you may have noticed numerous examples of painted cast iron fences adorning the gardens of many of the historic homes. While many think this is a modern occurrence having to do with the colorful culture of the city, this actually depicts quite accurately what many iron fences actually looked like historically.

Fencing was often used to delineate family plots or individual burials. They are one of the unique characteristics of historic cemeteries, rarely seen in more modern cemeteries. Unfortunately, there is a growing elicit market for cemetery gates, fencing, benches and other ironwork. It is important to understand that removing such materials is against the law, as well as extremely disrespectful. Owners and caretakers should take steps to secure all materials. The National Park Service and the Chicora Foundation both have resources available to help preserve and protect these unique historic cemetery features. The first step should include an inventory and photographic documentation of all the fencing within the cemetery. This helps with proper repair should it become damaged and can assist you in identifying items belonging to the cemetery should something be removed. 

Historic fencing is something, along with  historic grave markers, that should be documented and assessed regularly and repaired when necessary. Some of the preservation does require specialized skill, but some can also be done by trained volunteers. The Wisconsin Historical Society hosted a wonderful webinar on the repair and care of ornamental fences. These fences are characteristic of Victorian Era cemeteries, and while many folks tend to pass over them with just a glance, it is definitely worthwhile to stop and admire their beauty and intricate designs. They are truly pieces of art worthy of admiration!

An Imposter Among Stone: White Bronze Monuments

 If you have ever noticed a monument in a cemetery that looked a lot like stone, but actually

Samuel Sheppards white
bronze monument at 
Old City Cemetery.
(courtesy of findagrave.com)

appears to be made of some type of metal, you probably have stumbled upon what is commonly referred to as a “white bronze” marker. These markers are actually not bronze at all, but an alloy of varying amounts of copper, tin, and zinc. Oftentimes, these markers tend to stand out in the cemetery because they appear in better shape, or cleaner than their stone neighbors. White bronze monuments are non-porous and resistant to corrosion and degradation over time. They don’t tarnish and many appear deceptively brand new, often with a bluish-grey color, which was a result of the finishing process. The monuments were sandblasted and finished using a process called “steam bluing” to give them their stone-like appearance. Steam bluing involves coating the monument in linseed oil and then steaming it at high pressure. 

Monumental Bronze Company 
catalog page illustrating some
common motifs that were available.
(Courtesy of The Smithsonian)

These monuments were marketed as an affordable option that would stand up to wear and tear. They were one third the price of stone or granite markers at the time. The term “White Bronze” was a marketing strategy to make the monuments more appealing to the masses. Some cemeteries banned them, possibly at the request of local granite and marble monument manufacturers. Some saw white bronze to be a cheap imitation of solid granite. Nevertheless, these monuments appear in cemeteries all over North America, from the west to the east coast, and into Canada. Each one is unique, as they were made to order. Over 500 designs were available and the purchaser chose their base, monument and attached panels from a catalog. These monuments were not sold in local stores, but were marketed and sold by sales agents. The price ranged from $10 to $5000, depending on the desired specifications. Often they will have removable panels that were bolted on using a specialized tool. This was so that new names could be added in cases where one monument represented multiple individuals. These panels continued to be manufactured until 1939, several decades after manufacturing of the monuments had come to an end.

The Monumental Bronze Company plant in 
Bridgeport, Connecticut (courtesy of A Grave 
Interest)

The technique was developed by Milo Amos Richardson in Chautauqua, New York in 1873. He attempted to establish his own manufacturing company, but in the end sold the rights to the Monumental Bronze Company. The Monumental Bronze Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut was the sole manufacturer of these monuments from 1874 to 1914. Although the original casting was done in Bridgeport, Monumental Bronze had foundries and assembly plants in Chicago, Des Moines, Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and St. Thomas, Canada.

As previously mentioned, these monuments were made of a metal alloy. They were manufactured as vertical panels that were then assembled using screws. The inside of the monument is hollow, which has lent itself to stories of bootleggers hiding contraband and alcohol in them during Prohibition. However, we couldn’t find any concrete proof to back that up. What we do know is that while these monuments are extremely sturdy, some of the heavier ones will start to sag, requiring internal supports. Quite often we also see the seams that were fused start to come apart as the monument ages or sags.

The manufacturing of white bronze monuments came to an end during World War I. The Monumental Bronze Company was taken over by the U.S. government to manufacture gun mounts and munitions for the war effort. After the war, demand for metal monuments had declined, but they continued to make the metal panels until 1939. Most of their manufacturing shifted to things such as fabricating castings for automobile parts, radio parts, and kitchen equipment. The company did not survive the Great Depression and ended up closing after filing bankruptcy in 1939.

Marie Murat Hickey's white bronze marker at 
Chestnut Street Cemetery in Apalachicola
(Courtesy of findagrave.com)

If you have never noticed any white bronze monuments in a cemetery, there are a few in the local Big Bend and Tallahassee area you can check out. In Old City Cemetery in downtown Tallahassee (where Bessie’s monument is also located) there is the white bronze monument for the grave of Samuel Allen Sheppard (d. 1897). In Chestnut Street Cemetery in Apalachicola there is the grave of Marie Murat Hickey (d. 1907). Her husband,Patrick Hickey (d. 1907) has an identical white bronze marker in nearby  Magnolia Cemetery. According to local lore, Marie cut her husband’s throat  at their home above a local store, and then cut her own throat! However, we could not find a single piece of documentary evidence to prove this story to be true. Talk about a history mystery though! If you know of any such documentation or of any other local white bronze monuments, we would love to hear from you! You can read further about these monuments by checking out the links below as well. 

Resources and more information:

Connecticuthistory.org https://connecticuthistory.org/monumental-bronze-company/

Mount Olive Cemetery, Inc. http://www.mountolivetcemeteryinc.com/stories-in-stone-blog/white-bronze-markers

Stephen F. Austin State University http://www.sfasu.edu/heritagecenter/4687.asp

The Smithsonian (great images of Monumental Bronze Company Catalogs!) https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/whitebronzemonu00monu

A Grave Interest Blog http://agraveinterest.blogspot.com/2012/06/white-bronze-monument-of-quality.html

A Lesson In Cemetery Symbolism: Elizabeth Budd Graham was not a Witch, and This is How We Know, Part 2

John Alexander Graham,
Bessie's husband. (photo
courtesy of findagrave.com) 

 In our last post we discussed the symbolism of Elizabeth Budd Graham’s grave and how it proved that she was not a witch. Now we are going to explore what little written information there is about Elizabeth in the historical record. As was common for the time, there is much more information out there about her husband, John Alexander Graham, and other male relatives than there is about her. But thankfully, there is some information out there, such as her obituary and genealogical information. We  can use that information to learn more about her and learn who the real person was behind all the lore.

We have already talked a little bit about her obituary in the last post, but let us dive further, as it is a good place to start when researching any deceased person. An obituary can provide information like important dates, places and relatives. One important date that has contributed to the witch myth is her birth date. Yes, she was born in October, but by that logic everyone born in October would have to be a witch, right?  I have provided her obituary in its entirety below. 

Obituary: A Sad Death

Early this morning at the dawning of a new day the insatiate reaper, death, claimed Bessie, the lovely young wife of Mr. John A. Graham, at their family residence, 64 East Duval street. Mrs. Graham had been slightly unwell for a day or two, but no one anticipated so sudden and sad a termination. Last night she was much troubled with her heart and between 4 and 5 o'clock she quietly and peacefully passed away, we hope, to a better and brighter home in the unknown beyond. Possessed of rare personal beauty and excellent traits of character that her young life should so suddenly and abruptly terminated when all before her appeared so happy and pleasant. The blow fell hard with crushing effect upon the young husband, who loved and adored his wife with all the affection possessed by human nature. Mrs. Graham was the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. David Wilson of Tallahassee, and niece of Mr. C.W. Smith, of this city. She leaves besides her husband and one babe a number of other relatives residing at Monticello and Tallahassee.-Metropolis, 16th. The remains were brought to Tallahassee for internment, arriving Sunday afternoon, and were followed to the grave by a large concourse of sympathizing friends, the funeral being from the residence of the parents of the deceased, Mr. and Mrs. David C. Wilson, at 3:30 p.m.

We had assumed that since she was buried in Tallahassee, that she and her husband lived here. However, an initial search found there to be no East Duval Street in Tallahassee (note the address in her obituary), although there is a Duval Street that runs north and south. This caused a little confusion at first during our research. There is an East Duval Street in Jacksonville, however. Unfortunately, the address 64 East Duval Street is now a paved parking lot. We were hoping to possibly find a historic home in that location dating to the time Bessie and John would have resided there, but no such luck. The obituary mentions that her remains were brought to Tallahassee, but not from what location. Was she visiting her family in the area when she became ill or was she brought here from Jacksonville after she passed? Either way, she was most likely buried in Old City Cemetery because of her familial ties to the area, as evidenced by her surviving relatives mentioned in the obituary. The 1880 U.S. Census data shows that her residence was  in Jacksonville and not Tallahassee. 

Her tombstone inscription states that she was a mother, but we cannot find any concrete evidence of who her child was. Her obituary mentions one baby, but no name. Her husband did remarry to  Nina Hayward Graham. There are two children tied to John Andrew Graham. One is John Graham, Jr. (mentioned as a surviving family member in the 1921 obituary) and the other is Harriet (who passed in 1913, of unknown age). Harriet is also mentioned as Nina’s child, so we are left to assume that John Graham, Jr. was perhaps Elizabeth’s surviving child. 

In researching Elizabeth’s parents, David C. Wilson, Jr. and Florence J Smith Wilson, we learn that they were married in 1866 (the same year Bessie was born). David was born in Jefferson County and served in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. David passed in 1906 and is buried at Tallahassee’s Old City Cemetery, which further confirms why Elizabeth may have been buried there as well. It is also interesting to note that David’s monument is also an obelisk, although not as large or ornate as Elizabeth’s, but still can be viewed as a sign of the family’s wealth and prestige. Florence passed years later in 1929 at the age of 81. At the time she had been living in Jacksonville and her obituary states she was living “at the home”. We are unsure what that means, but perhaps she was living at a retirement home. There was a Confederate Old Soldiers Home in Jacksonville, but it was for soldiers only, so it is not likely that Florence, even as the widow of a CSA veteran, was living at that home. She was buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Jacksonville after a funeral service at St. Marks Episcopal Church. This may explain Elizabeth’s ties to Jacksonville and may be why she was listed as living there in the 1880 census.

We went as far back as Elizabeth’s grandparents and found something interesting that is further

Elizabeth's Grandfather,
David Wilson, Sr. (photo
courtesy of findagrave.com)

evidence that she was not a witch, but in fact had long ties to the Christian church. Her grandmother on her father’s side, Elizabeth Shirley Wilson, along with her descendants were members of the Presbyterian Church in Tallahassee. Her grandfather, David C. Wilson, Sr. was an elder and one of the founders of the First Presbyterian Church and gifted the tower bell. The First Presbyterian Church is an interesting landmark itself, and is the oldest continually operating public building in Tallahassee. It is fascinating to find a connection between it and Elizabeth Budd Graham. 

In researching Elizabeth Budd Graham, we became curious where the name Budd came from. Her maiden name was Wilson, so we dug a little deeper and found that her great-grandmother was named Elizabeth Kershaw Budd Smith and is buried in a different Old City Cemetery in Monticello (you have to be careful with cemetery names because there are a lot of duplicates out there!). Budd was her great grandmother’s maiden name and her family had long ties to the area. 

All this being said, we hope that this has humanized Elizabeth Budd Graham for you and convinced you that she was indeed not a witch. She was descended from a prominent family with a long history in both Tallahassee and Monticello. She and her family were all upstanding citizens, heavily involved in the church. In fact they were founding members of one of the most historic

Historic photo of First Presbyterian 
Church (photo courtesy of First
Presbyterian Church)

churches in Tallahassee! While it is fun to imagine witches and haunts in historic graveyards, it is important to remember that behind each and everyone of those monuments is a human being and that those monuments were placed there by those that loved and mourned them. Besides, the real stories of those buried in historic cemeteries is usually much more fascinating than the myth. Historic cemeteries are essentially outdoor museums and a great way to get to know a community’s history by connecting the people buried there with the historic landscape. In fact, in this case, the Tallahassee Old City Cemetery is only a few blocks away from the historic First Presbyterian Church.

A Lesson in Cemetery Symbolism: Elizabeth Budd Graham was not a Witch, and This is How We Know, Part 1

 

Elizabeth Budd Graham's grave

Elizabeth Budd Graham passed away of heart disease on November 16, 1889 at the young age of 23. She was laid to rest in Tallahassee’s oldest municipal cemetery, Old City Cemetery, now located in what is downtown Tallahassee. Her grave is said to be one of the most visited graves in the cemetery, but not by descendants as you would expect. Decades later rumors started to surface that Bessie, as she is affectionately known (as inscribed on her elaborate tombstone), was a witch. This rumor, unlike poor Bessie, has not been laid to rest despite numerous attempts over the years. Generations of visitors have deposited tokens and offerings to this young woman, either as offering to someone they truly believe to be a witch or perhaps as a way to keep the story alive. But that is just it, the claims of witchcraft are nothing more than a story. This blog post is an attempt to both humanize Elizabeth, and quell such rumors. There is no evidence to suggest that Elizabeth Budd Graham practiced any form of witchcraft, and in fact, there is plenty of evidence to suggest otherwise if you know what to look for. 

So first, let us look at reasons why folks believe she was a witch. The most obvious one being that her inscription “faces the wrong way”, that being westward. Common and modern Christian burial practices dictate that the dead be buried facing east, towards the rising sun, as symbolic of the second coming of Christ (Jerusalem is to the east). However, there are other graves in the cemetery that also face west, and yet, Bessie is the only one whom people claim was a witch. In fact, during the Victorian era, it was common for burials, especially those on the edge of cemeteries, to face inwards. Bessie’s grave is on the eastern boundary of the cemetery, thus having her inscription face west makes it easier for those in the cemetery to view it. Another possible interpretation for the west facing grave, which occurred relatively frequently during the time, was to symbolize the setting sun, representing a life having ended.

Inscription on Bessie's grave, which faces west

That being said, further supposed evidence of her being a witch is the inscription itself, which happens to be an excerpt from the poem “Lenore”, written by Edgar Allen Poe. Many attempts have been made to dissect the meaning of the poem to make it fit the claims of witchcraft. For example “queenliest dead” in the poem has been said to suggest the Queen of the Dead, thus possibly referencing a witch. However, the inscription is only an excerpt of the poem, and Poe goes on to say that the deceased has passed “to a golden throne, beside the King of Heaven”.  If you are familiar with Victorian burial and mourning practices, you know that it was steeped in ritual surrounding death and dying (probably because they saw quite a lot of it during that time!). “Lenore” is about a beautiful young woman dying and the excerpt was most likely chosen to mourn a lost young woman and ensure proper burial rites.  The poem was originally titled “A Paean” which means a poem that praises or honors its subject. So, while it may seem like a dark poem (cue Victorian mourning rituals), it is about an adored young woman named Lenore that has passed. And for the literary fans out there, it is also worth noting that Lenore is the same name of the mourned woman in “The Raven”, also written by Poe (many of the women in his poems and stories have the letter L in their name, it is thought that Lenore may represent his departed wife, Virginia, or his brother that had also died. His brother’s name was William Henry Leonard Poe). It is also interesting that Elizabeth Budd Graham is described as “rare personal beauty and excellent traits of character” in her obituary, which also fits with the meaning of the poem. 

So now that we have broken down the epitaph, let us explore the symbols on this elaborate grave. Most notably, the 12 foot obelisk, which towers in comparison to its surrounding graves. This would have cost a pretty penny in the late 1800s (and now probably!). Many have speculated that perhaps Bessie had bewitched her husband into loving her and spending money on her. John Alexander Graham was  a timber magnate, real estate developer, and cattleman. He was doing pretty well for himself. There was a custom during the Victorian era that correlated money with love, but not in the way people think. It was common practice to spend a grand amount on mourning and burials if you had the money to spend. There was a direct correlation to the amount spent on the burial with the love you had for the person you were burying. Mr. Graham was obviously doing pretty well, so it was socially and culturally not surprising that he made such a grand gesture by investing so heavily in such an ornate gravesite for his wife. The inscription, “A dutiful daughter, a devoted mother and a loving and faithful wife” on her stone are evidence of his love for her. Furthermore, her obituary states, that“The blow fell hard with crushing effect upon the young husband, who loved and adored his wife with all the affection possessed by human nature”. All that aside, an obelisk is very often a symbol of rebirth and the connection between heaven and earth. 

Red Circle shows an example 
of the crown and cross motif on 
Bessie's grave.

So, besides the actual grave marker, another very important clue to who Bessie actually was resides atop the obelisk. At the very pinnacle of the grave marker is the common grave motif known as the cross and crown. This is a common Christian symbol used on graves that combines two Christian symbols. The cross represents suffering and death (reference Luke 14:27) and the crown represents eternal reward (reference James 1:12). Thus it can be interpreted to mean that rewards in heaven come after the trials and tribulations on earth. Furthermore, this symbol is also associated with Freemasonry, and well, her husband was indeed a Freemason. In fact, this symbol is associated with various religious and fraternal orders, none of them having anything at all to do with witchcraft. 

Other symbols carved into the obelisk provide further evidence that she was a Christian woman in good standing within her community. The inscription “IHS” on the grave are the first three letters of the Greek word for “Jesus”. Delicately carved ivy vines also decorate the stone. Ivy is often used on graves to represent fidelity and eternal life. You will recall that the inscription makes mention of her as “A dutiful daughter, a devoted mother and a loving and faithful wife”, all of which is further emphasized by the symbols carved into her grave stone. Of course, some have taken these Christian symbols to be proof that she was perhaps a “white witch”. However, it is important to note, that unlike the previously mentioned symbols, the concept of a white witch is not related to Christianity, nor has it ever been.The concept of a white witch was not made popular until relatively recently, as part of the New Age Movement which gained popularity in the 1970s. This movement draws upon a variety of older spiritual movements and the occult. So it is highly unlikely that Elizabeth Budd Graham practiced any New Age type of spirituality.

Goods placed at Bessie's grave.

There are current New Age practitioners and self described witches, along with the curious observers, that regularly place goods upon Bessie’s grave as tokens or offerings to the “Tallahassee Witch”. While grave goods are common practice in many religions, it is important not only to keep the symbolism in mind, but also to understand that some grave goods are not actually good for the grave. Items such as candles and rusted metal objects are damaging. While headstones and heavy stone obelisks appear indestructible, they are not. Candle wax creates a barrier between the environment and the stone, causing biological growth and other forms of potential damage. Metal objects stain the stone as they rust, and in many cases that rust cannot be removed. Food attracts critters which may also cause damage. Paper and photos sit and rot in the Florida weather, attracting both critters and biological growth. I would advise against leaving objects at Bessie’s grave at all, but if you feel the urge, please be mindful of what damage your offering may cause and consider placing them on the ground beside the grave rather than directly on the stone. 

While much lore surrounds Bessie’s grave, she was a real person and her monument was left as a symbol of insurmountable love and devotion which is deserving of respect. Let us all do what we can to protect this beautiful piece of art and ensure that her memory (hopefully, the historically accurate version) lives on for others to enjoy. In our next installment, we will discuss what little we know of Elizabeth Budd Graham based on historical documentation. So stay tuned!